British literature: Romanticism

1. Revolutions

• Europe&America- political, economic, social&philosophical rev.
• new attitudes crashed across the Old World=ne energy=new literature
• the era of liberal rev began in the New World when 13 Am colonies revolted against the UK, on July 4, 1776 the Declaration of Independence, 1778 treaty of Paris=UK ok with Am
• then came the French Rev (more violent, complex, influetial, controversial, loved, hated)
• this brought the modern era in politics to Fr
• at first great hope for common people (the rev)->then massacres, execution of Louis XVI& Marie Antoinette, Reign of Terror (by Robespierre, 1793-94)
• 1793 they declared war on UK (the Napoleonic wars lasted until 1815), there were severe domestic problems in UK (GIII declared mad, GIV enemy of liberals)
• Industrial Rev- begun 1780s when the Romantic Age had produced drastic social and economic changes        technological innovations -> large factories (steam engine- by J Watt, mining for coal to get steam increased)
  

2. Nature of Romanticism

• reaction against the universiality of Fr cultural domination, the Fr Neoclassisim and poets began to seek inspiration in native themes
• back to nature, rural scenes, primitive&common feelings&diction expressed spontaneously
• the age was hectic, emotional exuberance, tremendeous intensity in text and lives (suicides, duels to death, madnesses, strange illnesses)
• The poets lead bohemian lives (long hair, no wigs), they rejected materialism, dirven by a sence of an unlimited univere
  

3. W. Wordsworth (1770-1850)

• First to announce literary ideals of the Eng Rom Age, was peaceful, wrote about nature, serene. Lost mom when young->sent to an excellent grammar school in Hawkshead. Ardent supporter of the Fr Rev, fell in love with a Fr women called Annette, but couldn't marry, Fr rev doomed-> fell in depression

• Wrote Lyrical Ballads (1798) jointly with S.T. Coleridge, the preface was a formal announcent of a new literary age (man is depicted as a helpless creature living at the mercy of supernatural forces)
  

4. Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834)

• Childhood was influenced by Robinson Crusoe and Arabian Nights, he didn't get a degree in Cambridge because he was unhappy & disillusioned with university life. He was an idealist, supporter of the Fr rev- later brought disappointment to him. He was tormented by rheumatism and was an opium addict.

• 1795 he met Wordsworth who soon moved with his sister Dorothy to Somerset, near Coleridge.

• He was influenced by Wordsworth, he wrote of characters & persons supernatural (e.g Kubla Khan)
  

5. Lord Byron (aka George Gordon) (1788-1824)

• He was uncommonly handsome, talented, had a fierce temperament, but also suffered from handicap- a club foot. Yet he became an outstanding athlete, masterful swimmer, horseman, boxer, cricket player and boxer.

• He was a decendant of two aristocratic but flamboyant & violent families. Became lord when he was 10. At Cambridge was on known fior a lavish lifestyle. He had bear as a pet there. After university he travelled on horseback from Portugal&Spain on to distant lands. On his return he effortlessly wrote Child Harod's Pilgrimage - he was instantly popular

• Then he became center of scandals, he separated from his young and lovely wife. When he was 28, he self-imposed himself to exile, never to return to England. He died shortly after his 36th birthday from exhaustion

• Best works: Don Juan (unfinished), Hebrew Melodies, Hours of Idleness. He is the creator of the byronic hero (love and hate mixmatched)
  

6. Jane Austen (1775-1817)

• wrote domestic comedies (humorous, ironical), she valued truth and never idealised her characters

• she is known for the lack of events in her own life (never married, although several suitors)

• the narrowness of experince, meagrness of her opportunites is often stressed

• she began writing in her mid-teens, some works: Sense and Sensibility, Mansfield Park, Pride and Prejudice, Emma
  

7. Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832)

• born in the family of a barrister, became lame for life when 2 years old, sent to his grandparent's farm where he became a strong boy. When older grew fond of reading. He became a lawyer, practised for 14 years. During this time he visited places of famous battles and collected old ballads, folk-songs etc. He wished to record all the historical facts he knew before they were forgotten. He felt that the good days were gone.

• When 26, he married and bought a house in Abbotsford. It became sort of museum of Scottish history and culture- it was visited by famous people.

• He first published translations of German poetry, then came The Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border, these poems brought fame. He published several poetic works but when Byron appeared he left the field of poetry to his rival (actually they were friends). This marked a new period in Scott's creative work. In 1814, published a novel, Waverly, but anonymosly, the book was a great success. He published several novels under the name of The Author of Waverly but his secret leaked. He wrote more than 25 novels(+ tales, stories), including Guy Mannering, Rob Roy, Ivanhoe

• In 1818 he accepted the offer of baronetcy, it seemed everything was going right but then his publisher John Ballantyne went bankrupt. Scott was in debts, he worked fiercly to pay the debt but his health broke down, he was sent to Italy but had to turn back. On his arrival at Abbotshire he died.
  

British literature: Realism 1865-1914

1. The changes in America after the Civil War

- huge transcontinental expansion

- cities war transforming (sanitation, gas, electric lights, major rebuilding in some, urban transportation, modern architecture)

- education, literacy increased; books & journalism reached a wider range of readers

- the war left bitter memories & the innocent optimism gave way to a period of exhaustion

+ country morally exhausted + U.S. was now one nation + end of slavery

- Americans increasingly idealized progress & the self-made man (era of the millionaire manufacturer & speculator; survival of the fittest)

- business boomed (experience in the management of men and machines)

+ trans-American railway, transcontinental telegraph + enormous natural resources

- constant influx of immigrants (seemingly endless supply of cheap labor)

- massive industrial growth but also farming was doing well: vast amount of timber used, buffalo/ wild game gave way to cattle, sheep, farms, villages & cities (half of the population in towns)

- problems of urbanization and industrialization: poor & overcrowded housing, unsanitary conditions, low pay, difficult working conditions; strikes, labor unions, reform movements

2. The tendencies in literature.. - .. were realistic. The novels depicted the damage of economic forces & alienation of the weak individual; survivors endure through inner strength (individuality!)

- realism - man & society - naturalism - man as a biological being, there is no spiritual creation, value or control.

3. Mark Twain (1835-1910) aka Samuel Langhorne Clemens

- Pseudonym comes from the leadsman's cry to the pilot when water is safe, but barely safe, lies ahead (twain = two fathoms deep = kaks sülda vett kiilu all)

- wrote "Life on the Mississippi" based on his romantic memories; national fame came with "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County and Other Sketches"; "The Innocents Abroad" was a tale of a tour in Europe and East; "The Gilded Age" showed the new morality of the Americans; "The Adventures of Tom Sawyer" and "The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn" followed. (Also: "Tom Sawyer Abroad", "Tom Sawyer Detective", "A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court", "The Man That Corrupted Hadleyburg", "A Tramp Abroad", "The Prince and the Pauper")

- The Adventures of TS - two "bad boys", life on the Mississippi & in USA in the 19th century. The boys witness a murder & as the innocent Muff Potter is accused Tom gives evidence in court. H&T stalk Injun Joe (the murderer), Tom & Becky get lost in the caves where Joe is hiding, find the treasure, get out of cave, cave closed, Injun Joe dies in the caves. Elements of Realism (stagnant life of the small town) & Romanticism (the world of Tom and his friends)

- The Adventures of HF - considered as a sequel to TS. H is a boy who'll not accept the kinds of freedom the world is able to offer and flees -> symbol of man's inevitable, restless fight. H was adopted, his father abducted him, H flees, joins up with a runaway slave Jim. Along the way down Mississippi H learns about the evil of the world. He has a big moral problem - he has to return the slave but decides the slave is also a man & brakes the law. After that, he is already a grown man.

4. Jack London (1876-1916)

- the men who influenced him: Charles Darwin (scientist of evolution) - Earth was very old, all species evolved from sea; Herbert Spencer (philosopher of evolution) - the fit would survive; Friedrich Nietzche - struggle to be the "superman"; Karl Marx - The Communist Manifesto (philosophy of socialism)

- got his material from his work as a sailor, tramper, canner, oyster pirate, jute-mill worker, coal shoveler and from his adventure in Alaska during the gold rush.

- The Northern Stories are the fruit of London's material collected during the gold rush. The stories are: The Son of the Wolf, Children of the Frost, Love of Life, The Call of the Wild (dog Buck feels betrayed and goes back to the wild), White Fang (3/4 of wolf, bred like one, becomes domesticated), To Build a Fire (a man freezes to death in Alaska stupidly thinking he can build a fire whenever just because he has matches)

- Martin Eden - autobiographical novel, London's own struggles to overcome his lack of book-learning, to turn from a rough sailor to an educated man & author in 3 years. Ends with suicide.

American literature: Early American and Colonial Period

Early Am & Colonial period. Making of a nation.

- orally transmitted myths, legends, tales and songs of the Indians (over 500- had their own religions, gov democracy to councils to theocracies) chanted, sung or narrated- oral culture

- Idea of the New World (opposed to old and worn-out, actually not new)- new paradise, ppl Pursuit of Happiness. 1^st to come: Spanish, French, English.

1507 Martin Waldseemüller marks it as America after Amerigo Vespucci. Actually 1^st to arrive were Norwegians (Leif Ericson 11^th c, n-am) but in oct 1492 Columbus was looking for a new shorter route to India.

- Jamestown, Virginia- 1^st permanent Eng settlement in 1607 (starvation, brutality, misrule), crown hoped to greater power, empire, riches; status was based on ownership of land- emigrants would not go, so in 1618 co began giving 50 acres to all new colonists

- Captain John Smith, one of Jamestown's leaders. To him we owe story of Pocahontas who saved his life and married an Englishman John Rolfe in 1614(in his General History of Virginia 1624)

- Puritans- sought to reform the Established Church of Eng (threat to destroy unity of state church, undermine royal authority). During James I reign Separatists moved to Holland where they could do what they wanted. Later some decided to emigrate to Am (the Pilgrims), in 1620 founding the colony of Plymouth. Mayflower from Southampton- 66 days- Cape Cod (further n). After C I ascended to the throne in 1625 the persecution increased. The MBC founded in 1630 had persons of wealth and position as well; intellectual although living in the wilderness, brought the printing press from Eng. Harvard College founded in 1636 in Massachusetts, the College of William and Mary, Collegiate School of Connecticut (Yale). Compulsory elementary education..

- Puritan lit- God important, spiritual dangers on Earth- life is a test: failure=damnation and eternal hellfire, success=bliss; secular amusements dissed. Nonfiction+pious genres

- Quakers- dissatisfaction with Eng led W. Penn to found Pennsylvania in 1681, also Cecil Calvert founded Maryland in 1633. Most actually emigrated for economic opportunity- wars, poverty, oppression, unemployment, crop failure.

William Bradford (1590-1657)

Member of the Plymouth colony. Spirit of determination & self-sacrifice. Shortly after arrival voted governor (chief judge, jury, superintended agriculture and trade, allotments of land).

Born in Yorkshire to modestly well-off parents, father died when infant, mother remarried in 1593, he was brought up by grandparents. Did not go to university, he was taught farming. At 12 or 13 heard sermon of the Nonconformist R.Clyfton, he left home and joined the Separatists. 1609 goes to Holland, becomes a weaver. Grant for land- Plymouth, Massachusetts. In his 2^nd book he describes the signing of the Mayflower Compact (to reassure themselves and their backers) A self-educated man. A Relation or Journall of the Beginning and Proceedings of the English Plantation settled at Plimoth (1622 + E. Winslow). Master piece: Of Plymouth Plantation (1651) finest single prose (origins of the Separatists in Eng, settlement in Holland, plans to emigrate, Mayflower, secular affairs in colony).

Anne Bradstreet (c 1612-1672)

1^st poem book also 1^st book in Am by a woman. Published in Eng. Born in Northampton, as a child moved to Boston. Though parents Puritans, she was tutored very well. In 1628 married Simon Bradstreet, though he was older, he outlived her. In 1630 joined Winthrop party (MBC). She didn't like Am but her deep love for husband and religious conversion made it easier. She moved in wealthy circles. She had had rheumatic fever as a child=> periods of severe fatigue. Her husband was the secretary to the MBC and later governor. Had 8 children, many times a grandmother. 7000 lines of verse. Her brother-in-law published the poems without her knowledge. The 10^th Muse, Lately Sprung up in America (1650), 6 y after death in Boston Several Poems Compiled with a Great Variety of Wit. Her rhythm is faulty but not unpleasing. Meditative poem Contemplations (q her religion, finds reassurance in her spiritual progress). To My Dear and Loving Husband (1678)- oriental imagery, love theme, idea of comparison. Her special voices appears in poems on her husband, children and domestic affairs.

The Enlightenment. The War of Independence, formation of the United States of America

In 18^th c more & more settlers, need to move inland. GB had no consistent policy for her colonies, had to supply GB with raw material and not compete in manufacturing. Colonists function on Eng law and constitution.

1775-1783 The War of Independence. Eng colonies rose against parent country. At 1^st Am had little luck, untrained army but the Am resistance soon assumed a mass nature. 1775 Second Continental Congress- called and began to act like a provisional gov. July 4, 1776 the Declaration of Independence. The Stamp Act 1764 taxed all newspapers, legal doc, licenses- Bostonians burned down the governor's palace. Tea Party in 1773. G. Washington was in command, led the resistance. B. Franklin managed to make an agreement with the French so they and European countries helped out. The end of the war acknowledged the independence, knowledge and sovereignty of the 13 states.

Spiritual life formed by the Enlightenment- movement supported by all progressive forces. Representatives saw themselves as spreaders of knowledge & rev ideas, human reason is VIP. Journalism. This was the Age of Reason. Emphasis on rationality, scientific inquiry. Writers devoted to ideals of justice, liberty, equality. Thanks to new scientific views world seemed more comprehensible (Deists- assumed that humankind naturally good, not interested in theology. Am Rev) Am books harshly reviewed in Eng. Writing did not pay. Enlighteners: Franklin, Jefferson. Hector St. John de Crévecoeur Letter from an American Farmer, 1^st to use term “melting pot” referring to Am.

Pamphlets. Most famous writer Thomas Paine, 1^st work Common Sense pop= manifesto for the War of I. The Crisis in 16 parts, The Rights of Man, The Age of Reason. The best propagandist.

Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790)

Diplomat, scientist, inventor, philosopher, author, painter, engineer, statesman etc. 1^st American, last universal man. Supporter of federal sys of gov, great educational pioneer, believed in free enterprise. Born in Boston, Massachusetts to a soap- and candle maker family as one of 15 children. Worked at father's shop but wanted to learn, sent to half-brother James who owned a printing press. J put to jail, B published his newspaper but then quarreled in 1723 with J and left Boston-> NYC-> Philadelphia, where he started his own printing shop. Taught himself languages, read widely etc. He founded the 1^st subscription library, 1^st fire-fighting, fire-insurance company. Established a hospital and a college (Uni of Pennsylvania). In 1729 gave out The Pennsylvania Gazette- became most widely read paper.

2 legal children, 1 illegitimate. Started the self-help book genre. Project of life: Poor Richard's Almanac. The Way to Wealth 1757 collected his best sayings. At 42 retired, invented the open stove, 1^st pair of binoculars, harmonica, step-ladder chair, lighting rod. (gulf stream!). Autobiography (1771-1790) written to advise his son, scheme of self-improvement. Honorary degrees from Am and Eng but only 2 years of formal schooling !! In 1776 appointed to the committee to help write the declaration. 1781 chosen to make peace with Eng, 1783 signed. 1787 called to write the constitution. Died in Philadelphia.

Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826)

3^rd President of US, 1^st Secretary of State, minister to France, governor of Virginia, congressman. Wanted to be remembered only for 3 things: Declaration of Independence, Virginia Statue of Religious Freedom (1786), University of Virginia (planned the buildings, outlined course of study, 1sr rector). Notes on the States of Virginia (1787). Born in Virginia 13/04/1743, father was a successful planter. Graduated W&M College. He mastered Greek and Latin, played the violin, was a horseman. Law has profession- career in the legislature. He defended the freeing of slaves!! A strong liberal with democratic ideas. Political power should remain with common ppl- freedom of religion and press. 6 children (wife MW Skelton), only 2 to maturity. Monticello was their home, today a national monument. 2^nd Continental Congress in 1775/76 a committee for Dec of I- all men equal, have inalienable rights for life. Adopted on the 4^th of July 1776, same year elected to the Virginia House of Delegates, in 1783 to Congress, in 6 months wrote 31 state papers, 1785 succeeded Franklin in France, 1789 offer to become President wants to refuse but accepts. Supporters of J are Republicans opposed by Federalists. Bought Louisiana from Napoleon= 17 new states. He wrote endlessly articles on politics, social problems, philosophy. Friend and neighbor James Madison succeeded him as President. Died on 4^th of July 1826, on the 50^th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence

British history: The Stuarts

The Stuarts

Mary Queen of Scots – Cousin of E I, her son was King James I (Scotland’s James VI)

1. 
   
   James I - Became king 1603, not suitable for it, clever, but expressed opinions openly, sloppy. Died in 1625.
   

   Changes in Parlamentary Sys	Changes in Foreign Relations	Changes in Religion
   Tried to rule without P, E’s debts, P got right to discuss J’s home and foreign policy, J not above law, couldn’t make laws. 1611-21 ruled successfully without P	P got right to discuss it, 1618- 30 Years War began in Europe.	P wanted to go against Catholics, J said no. Disliked the Presbyterian Kirk in Scot(no bishops) & Puritans in Eng

   
   
2. 
   
   Charles I -
   

   Dissolved P, summoned when needed money, tried borrowing it from merchants, 1628 promised to borrow money only on Act of P& imprison anyone without lawful reasons(Petition of Right) Dissolved P, ruled efficently 11 y (1637 height of power), rebellion with Scots allowed them t ostate that the P had to meet every 3 years,

   Shared father’s dislike, mistakes began in 1637, married a French Catholic (Prot disliked the marriage), appointed Laud(enemy of Puritans) as Archbishop, brought back Anglican Church many Catholic practices, tried to make Kirk accept Church of Eng, 1638 Scots rebelled

   Civil war: C depended on P, events in Ireland in civil war, 1641 rebellion 3000 died, who should control army (Irish only against P), 1642 C tried to arrest 5 MPs, London locked gates againt king, C to Nottingham, gathered army, only 10% of pop took part. The Royalists (Cavaliers, HL, HC) vs Parlamentarians (Roundheads), at Naseby 1645 C were defeated, 1646 surrended, King gave to Scots, but given back because did not agree,, Cromwell offered deal: P control army 10y, then king, C refused, escaped to Scots, second outbreak of civil war, but Scots crushed, C recaptured, Cromwell- new model in army(fight for beliefs), probably P&people want C back but feared R, C found guilty, 31.01.1649 executed, irish shocked, support Royalists, sept 1649 Crom army to I, killed 6000, Scot invited CII to help, but lost, CII back to Fr, Scot under Eng rule

   
   
3. 
   
   Republican Britain (1649-1660)- not a success
   

   Severe government, got rid of monarchy, got rid of HL, disagreements between army &P, P dissolved 1653, army people Levellers wanted P to meet every 2 years, men over 21 right to elect MPs to it,	Cr got rid of it, Levellers wanted religious freedom
   From 1653 governed by Cr alone, became Lord Protector, extr unpopular, people forbidden to celeb Xmas & Easter or to play games on Sun, 1658 Cr died, the Protectorate collapsed, Cr son was not a good leader, one of commanders marched to London 1660, arranged free elections & invited CII to return to his kingdom

   
   
4. 
   
   Charles II (The Merry Monarch)- when return, laws & acts of Cr were cancelled, returned with, made piece with enemies, punished only those who were responsible for CIs execution, Parliamentarians given positions of authority, same belief as CI= divine right
   

   P itself remained weak, P wouldn’t allow for Catholics & Puritans to meet, the Test Act (1673), which prevented any Catholic from holding public office, first political parties (Whigs – Crown+P=<3, Tories- Crown + Ch = basis of 2-party system)

   CII hoped to make peace between different religious groups, wanted to allow Puritans & Catholics who dislike A C to meet freely, but P was Anglican, wouldn’t allow it, CII attracted to Catholic C

   
   
5. 
   
   James II – became king after brother’s death in 1685, France accepted Q Anne instead of JII
   

   T&A were delighted, but JII tried to remove the laws which stopped the Ch from taking positions in government & P, Tories, Whigs & Ang did nothing, were looking forward of succession of James’s daughter, Mary who was Protestant, husband William of Orange also, but 1688 Js son was born, WO was invited to Br, but crown offered only to Mary, WO said would leave, offered to both= Glorious Rev, gover based upon the consent of the people and the consent of the people was represented, P not the king power in state- Bill of Rights 1689(King not able to raise taxes, army without P), act of settlement 1701 only a prote could inherit the crown

   Tried to remove the laws which stopped the Ch from taking positions in government, tried to bring back the Catholic C, tried to bring together the Cat & Pur= Nonconformists

   Removed ¾ of JPs, replaced them with men of lower class

   
   
6. 
   
   Anne – Mary’s sister, first monarch to rule over UKGB, after Scotland united with Eng & Wales in 1707. Last of the Stuarts, relied on advise from S. Churchill, later quarreled, won several victories over the French
   
   
   

American history: WWI, WWII, Korean War

WWI (14.06.1914 – 11.11.1918; also the Great War) – Start: the heir to the Austria-Hungary throne was shot in Serbia; A-H (supported by Germany) declared war, since RUS & Fr supported Serbia, both began to prepare their armies; Germany attacked Fr through neutral Belgium. It was a trench warfare, which was slow and time consuming. Also it was a total war that involved the entire country. After a long war, Germany surrendered unconditionally on the 11^th of November 1918.

Allies – Br, Fr, RUS, It. Central Powers - Germany, A-H

Proclamation of neutrality – issued by W. Wilson (elected in 1912), U.S. neutral (1914-17) – believed war was the result of entangling alliances which U.S. tried to avoid, would not get involved, although sympathy was held for the Allies. U.S. continues to trade with both sides.

U.S. enters war – by 1917 Americans were ready to fight on the Allies’ side because the unrestricted warfare on all ships bound for Allied ports of the Germans angered them (G had sank the Br liner Lusitania in May 1915 killing 128 Am passengers); because of the Allied propaganda and also because they found out that when Am & G went to war, G promised to give Mexico back the lands taken from them by the U.S. in 1848. In april 1917 Wilson asked for a declaration of war from Congress. A war to end all wars – the world must be made safe for democracy (moral goals). President’s powers were temporarily expanded, economy turned to producing as many items for war as possible (meatless, wheatless days per week to send food where ppl were fighting). The Selective Service Act was passed by Congress and young men were drafted. When they entered the war, Allies were in a stalemate on land, German ships were winning battles on the ocean, so Allies started moving in convoys to protect themselves. The U.S. Navy helped the convoys, blockade German ports, destroy submarines. Eventually Germany surrendered.

Treaty of Versailles – In 1919 Allied nations tried to negotiate a peace treaty based on Wilsons 14 points for peace: 1) no secret treaties, 2) freedom of the seas, 3) freedom of international trade, 4) reduction of armaments, 5) settlement of all colonial claims fairly for everyone involved, 6-13) self-determination (ppl can decide what kind of gov they want), 14) establishing the League of Nations. The Allies still imposed crushing reparations on G, divided its colonies.

League of Nations – all countries would join; agree to settle disagreements through negotiations. The Senate thought that the U.S. should not be greatly involved, didn’t ratify the T of V and didn’t join. Though the LN failed because only few countries were committed, it determined the structure of the United Nations established after WW II

18^th amendment – prohibition law, the Anti-Saloon League, the Women’s Christian Temperance Union. Many speakeasies, gangsters appeared. 1933, the 21^st amendment was ratified, returning the control of alcohol usage to the individual states

19^th amendment – ratified in 1920 (1^st was Wyoming already in 1869) giving women the right to vote; leading suffragette was Susan B. Anthony who with other suffragettes lectured, organized and educated ppl about the vote for women and also of prohibition

Also going on: the Ku Klux Klan revived in 1915, millions of followers who terrorized blacks, Catholics, Jews, immigrants; Harlem Renaissance or flowering of the black literature took place; jazz caught on (G. Gershwin); 1^st Roman Catholic run for President was A. E. Smith in 1928; in 1927 the first nonstop air flight from NYC to Paris by C. Lindbergh; monkey trial in which a teacher was prosecuted for teaching Darwin’s theory at school; Washington conference in 1921 which was a plan for naval disarmament, respected the independence of China

Interwar period – between WW I and WW II, also called the Age of Normalcy (by President W.G. Harding); USA wanted to return to isolationism (immigration restrictions); during most of the time, the Americans enjoyed prosperity (jazz clubs, movie houses, new fashions for women, economic boom)

Red Scare – after a series of terrorist bombings in 1919, under the authority of Attorney General A. M. Palmer, raids of political meetings were conducted, arrests were made, a lot of foreign-born radicals deported, though most were innocent (the Sacco-Vanzetti case in 1921)

The Depression (1929-39) – production had risen, ppl were improving their lives, high tariffs meant that foreign countries were not buying the American goods, also the Americans were not buying them as well because of low wages; with the new machinery many jobs were lost; speculation in the stock market led to the downfall & crashed on the 29^th of October 1929 (Black Tuesday). By 1932 about 12 mln Americans were unemployed; businesses failed, factories were shut down, wages decreased, 5000 banks failed

Franklin D. Roosevelt – elected in 1932, he was enthusiastically optimistic & won by a landslide; went to work right away (“Hundred Days”) with his New Deal: 3 R’s – relief (stop suffering by providing direct money payments/jobs to the unemployed & providing mortgage loans to help farmers/homeowners in danger of losing their property), recovery (providing aid to farmers, business owners, workers to help get ppl back to work) and reform (to make sure there will never be another Depression). These measures regulated businesses & banks, protected ppl/consumers. Most of them were controversial but in time restored the economy (5 mln ppl were employed again). In Europe it ended differently – in Germany the Nazis (Hitler) came to power in 1933, also similar in Italy (Mussolini).

WW II – began on September 1, 1939 when Adolf Hitler ordered the German army to invade Poland. The U.S. tried to keep its neutrality (acts in 1935, 1936, 1937 no sale of war goods, no loans & no Americans sailing on ships of those fighting in the war; when Japan invaded China, USA didn’t see it as war & continued to supply weapons to China; act in 1939 allowed countries fighting in the war to buy war goods from USA if paid in cash & picked up goods itself). By June 1940, Fr defeated by G, UK alone on the Axis, USA began to favor an intervention. The Selective Service Act in 1940, substantial help to UK began in 1941 (lend-lease – Br had run out of money, so USA decided to lend or lease items)

Axis – Germany, It, Japan

Allied countries – Fr, UK, USSR, the U.S. and other smaller countries

Pearl Harbor – the Japanese surprise attack in Hawaii on the 7^th of December 1941 (a day which will live in infamy). The next day war was declared on Japan; G and Japan declared war on USA four days later.

Fighting the war against G – Allies decided they would first defeat G and then Japan. Attacked G through G-held northern Africa and up through Italy. Br was bombing military & industrial targets in G. Soviet Union pushed back the G troops. By September 1943, Italy had surrendered unconditionally.

D-Day – on June 6, 1944 the Allies launched the invasion at Normandy, Fr. Allied troops were led to victory by General D.D. Eisenhower. This helped to defeat Hitler. Paris liberated on August 24. G surrendered unconditionally on May 5, 1945.

Fighting the war against Japan – started less successfully. Japan had the Philippines, Malay States, Dutch East Indies, mowed toward Australia. In May & June, 1942, in the Battles of the Coral Sea & Midway, the Allied forces inflicted major damage/defeated the Japanese. Since the Japanese refused to surrender, H.S. Truman decided to use atomic bombs (developed in the Manhattan Project) to convince the Japanese. The 1^st bomb was dropped on Hiroshima (06.08.1945), Japan did not surrender despite the vast casualties; the 2^nd bomb was dropped on Nagasaki (09.08.1945). Japan surrendered on the 14^th of August 1945. WW II was over.

Effects of the war – even more of a total war than WW I; the economies of all countries involved in producing goods for the war; consumer goods (butter, gasoline) were rationed; wages were high; USA borrowed billions; everyone went to work to increase production (women working outside the home); defense industries could not discriminate on the basis of race, creed, color or national origin (see civil rights); UK & Fr were no longer leading world powers, now it was USA vs. USSR

Yalta Conference of February 1945 – Roosevelt, Churchill, Stalin promised free elections for all the liberated nations of Europe.

United Nations – set up by the Allied forces; works today as a place where countries can meet & discuss problems, preserve peace; tariff agreements (international trade was kept free)

Cold War – Europe split into two groups (USA & Western Europe, USSR & Eastern). In 1949 NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) was founded to declare alliance between the U.S. & W Europe to contain USSR in the areas it already influenced (containment - not to let it expand, defend each other if attacked). In 1955, the Warsaw Pact begun between USSR & Eastern Europe (promote peaceful coexistence, defend each other when attacked. The competition in the Cold War was economic.Truman Doctrine by President Truman (U.S. to support “free peoples” against (in)direct Soviet influence); has been followed since; Marshall Plan in 1947 by Secretary of State provided money to help rebuild Europe after WW II; the Western airlift of food & fuel lifted the Berlin blockade in May 1949; USA also helped fund the International Monetary Fund & the World Bank; J. McCarthy started a hunt for Communists but in 1954 he was exposed as a fraud; Sputnik sent up by USSR in 1957; Yuri Gagarin 1^st man on orbit by USSR in 1961; 1^st Am John Glenn in 1962; 1^st man on Moon July 1969 N. Armstrong

Trouble with Cuba – in April 1961 CIA agents sent to overthrow Fidel Castro were captured; in October 1962 nuclear missiles were discovered on Cuba, blockade, USSR promised to remove the missiles if Am didn’t invade Cuba

Korean War (1950-53) – Korea was occupied by USSR (North Korea, a Communist government) and USA (South, independent anti-Communist gov), tried to reunite the country but in June 1950, N attacked S without warning. The UN voted to send in troops (mostly U.S. & S Korean), they were pushed back at first but were able to fight back & expel the N Koreans & Chinese. Korea remains divided but is not at war.

Civil rights movement – blacks suffered from discrimination (especially in the S), their right to vote was restricted, schools were segregated, job discrimination. The Fair Employment Practices Committee was established by President Roosevelt to prevent discrimination by the defense industries; Truman started the Committee on Civil Rights (discrimination prevents achievement of the Am ideal of democracy). In 1954 blacks found support from the Supreme Court (Brown vs the Board of Education of Topeka case) – segregated public schools were ruled to be unconstitutional, this was followed by a decision to desegregate public schools in 1955. Some were against (racist whites), President Eisenhower send army troops to make sure children got to school safely. Blacks wanted to end discrimination peacefully (in Montgomery, Alabama blacks boycotted the segregated bus system by not using the bus in 1955 supported by M.L. King)

Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr – believed blacks could change society & its laws through non-violent means. Led the famous March to Washington in 1963 (whites & blacks to get civil rights legislation passed); his efforts helped to pass the Civil Rights Acts in 1957, 1960, 1964, 1968; the Voting Rights act in 1965/1970?. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. A holiday in his honor is held on the 3^rd Monday in January. He was shot & killed in 1968. Many followed his work, J.F. Kennedy (elected in 1960, assassinated in 1963) supported a similar legislation – New Frontier programs (the Peace Corps to provide developmental assistance for other countries using the help of volunteers). The next President, L. Johnson continued with his “war on poverty” and increased expenses on social programs to form the Great Society (Department of Housing & Urban Development and the Fair Labor Standards Act), established the Medicare (aid for elderly) and the Medicaid (aid for poor)

American history: Colonisation

Chapter 1. The Land and the People

1. What were some of the reasons that made European explorers want to sail west? Which reason do you think was most important to them?

- Came in search of religious and political freedom, trade, economic reasons (wealth- gold, pearls), adventure

2. What kind of men settled the Spanish colonies in the New World? The French Colonies? The English Colonies?

Colonies	Spanish	French	English
People (*RDFM- ruled directly from motherland)	Bring Catholicism to Indians; adventurous explorers, soldiers in the search of treasures; needed the labor of Indians; only in warmer regions; did not want outsiders in their colony	Adventurous explorers, soldiers; Catholicism to Indians; central Am mostly; tolerant towards Indians but only welcomed French Catholics in their colonies	Came with families to settle and build homes; dreamed of a New & better England; in most colonies room for every religion

3. Name some of the contributions made by the Indians to European settlers. What were the main weaknesses of the Indian societies according to Europeans?

- showed how to farm new land (new crops- corn, methods

- the Indian societies were very different from each other- some were peaceful, others unfriendly. They had different languages, beliefs and they were scattered across the country

4.Describe the different views of the Indians held by the French, English and Spanish colonies.

Colonies	Spanish	French	English
Views of Indians	Lived close to them, used their labor to develop the land they had conquered, were brutal towards them	Lived close to them, needed their friendship to survive, many Fr men married Indians, also did business with them	No wish to live close to them, very few married Indians. Only wished that Indians got out of the areas they had chosen to settle.

5. How were the English colonies ruled by differently than the French and Spanish colonies? Why was it important?

-The Spanish and the French wee ruled directly from the motherland and the governors were responsible directly to their king, people were never given a chance to rule. In English colonies however they made many of their laws, and most colonies had assembly-like gatherings of men from time to time to decide and discuss things.

-It was important since it meant breaking away from the motherland.

Chapter 2. Virginia

1. What is a joint-stock company? What is a monopoly?

- A joint-stock company is a business in which many people invest their savings. Their savings buy them shares or stock in the business. The shares are owned jointly by many people.

- monopoly trade meant that nobody could buy or sell goods in Virginia unless the board of directors permitted it

2. How did the Spanish colonies enrich Spain? How did England expect her colonies to provide riches?

- The Spanish colonies enriched Spain by mining gold and silver in South Am and shipping them to the motherland in treasure ships. England expected that there would also be gold and riches in its' Am colonies but there was very little gold to be found.

3. What rights did the Virginia colonists demand and get?

-

4. Why did tobacco planters need slaves? Why were black Africans the main victims of the slave trade?

- Tobacco planters needed slaves to do the hard work at plantations. At first they tried to use Indians and kidnapping white people but this proved to be unsuccessful. It was much more profitable to catch black people from Africa which the European countries had started to explore in the 1600s and ship them to America. It was said that a slave was a black man who wasn't Christianized.

5. What was the life like in Piedmont? What was it like in the Tidewater? How did these differences lead to Bacon's Rebellion?

Differences in the way of Life	Piedmont	Tidewater
	People poorer than in Tidewater; usually former indentured servants or younger sons of Tidewater planters, also Scotch-Irish immigrants. Farms smaller, life harder. Could not vote. Feared and hated the Indians	1st area settled in Virginia; home for rich planters & the Virginia aristocracy; settlers of English decent. Policy of primogeniture. Large mansions, many slaves. Gov controlled by them, only large landowners could vote, paid no attention to Piedmont’s needs. Wanted the Indians to live in peace.

- Bacon's Rebellion. In 1676 when a lot of white men were killed by the Indians, the price of tobacco fell, this made Piedmont farmers upset. N. Bacon, a planter got angry and attacked the Indians. Governor Berkley didn't like this. Bacon and the rebels captured and burnt Jamestown, Berkley escaped. Bacon ruled Virginia until his death, after that the 23 rebels were hung and a new governor who took in mind both settlement's needs was appointed.

Chapter 3. New England

1. Who were the separatists? Why did some of them want to go to America?

- A small group of people in England who didn’t accept the Anglican Church. They decided to separate.

- Living like that wasn’t going to be easy: if they remained in England they risked being put to prison or being killed. Leaving England was the only choice if they wanted to live safely. America offered a possibility to start a fresh life.

2. The fact that the Pilgrims landed far north of the Virginia Company's land is important in American history. Why?

- They landed in Cape Cod (Nov 1620), Plymouth. they were on their own- government was necessary- the Mayflower Compact. Life difficult, many died. In spring 1^st Indian visitors showed them how to grow corn and catch fish. A deal (help, no wars). In 1621 they survived thanks to the Indians helping- the 1^st Thanksgiving held in Nov, 1621.

3. What was the importance of the Mayflower Compact?

- Signed in Nov, 1620. Two important principles: the people would vote about the government and laws; the people would accept whatever the majority chose.

4. Who were the Puritans? What were their ideas about work? Money? Education? Pleasure? The beliefs of others?

Ideas about work	Money	Education	Pleasure	Beliefs of Others
Hardworking people highly respected. Working hard and honestly at his trade, a man does God's will. Work should be useful.	They had no arguments against making money if the job was done honestly and by working hard.	In 1636 Harvard College started. If 50+ families instruction in reading and writing, 100+ had to have grammar schools	They enjoyed music, liked nice clothing, drinking wine but not too much. Believed that there was a proper time and place for pleasure	Sure that their thoughts about God were correct, so they were very intolerant of many ideas and religions.

5. What were some things that caused the Puritans to lose power? Who took their place as leaders?

- The strict rules kept many people from joining their church. Gained enemies due to awful treatment of the Quakers. Economic success too had its' part- merchants were successful (more interested in fancy living)

- The merchants became the new leaders as the power was passed to them in the 1700s

Chapter 4. Pennsylvania

1. What were the beliefs of the Quakers? Why did these beliefs upset the English government?

- Believed that every man has a conscience by which God can guide him to the truth (God is inside them), all men are created equal and should love one another and never fight.

- Their religion was different and new; refused to pay taxes to the church of England, didn't remove hats before entering the church. Were pacifists (don't believe in fighting or in war) so they wouldn't fight for their country or even for themselves.

2. What basic ideas did William Penn write into his “Frame of Government”?

- Penn wanted a colony where all people would be welcome. Separation of church and state. Religious freedom to anyone who believed in God. Also wanted everyone to have freedom of speech and to be equal before the law.

3. What other groups besides Quakers settled in Pennsylvania? What did these groups contribute?

- The Mennonite, the Amish (married men grew beards, women wore long plain dresses and bonnets; 1750 ½ of population in Pennsylvania) from Germany, also the Moravian from Czechoslovakia (peace loving educated people)

- Contributions: The Moravian started Bethlehem, also the first water system. The Germans brought Santa Claus, the Christmas tree, the Easter Bunny etc.

4. What conflict developed between the Tidewater and Piedmont in Virginia?

- The Bacon Rebellion in1676

5. What advantages helped Philadelphia become the leading city in the colonies?

- The liberal attitude invited settlers to Philadelphia as it grew and prospered. Also the land was cheap (gifts of land) and the colony was well advertised (good business opportunities). The colony had a good trading position

Review questions (Chapter 1: Discovery and Colonization)

1. Name the earliest English, French and Spanish settlements in North America.

Spanish	French	English
1565- St Augustine (Florida) 1609- Santa Fe (New Mexico). Mainly in the southern regions	1562- in SC but failed 1608- Quebec (Champlain), then in Illinois, Mississippi, New Orleans, Beloxi, Haiti. Mainly in the central region.	1583- permission from QEI to Sir Gilbert, failed 1585- Sir Raleigh, Roanoke Island (NC), failed, settlers disappeared 1607- Jamestown (Virginia) 1620- Plymouth(Massachusetts)

2. Compare the English, French and Spanish settlements in North America

	Spanish	French	English
Location	In warmer regions (S)	Mostly central Am	Close to the ocean (N-Am from MA to VA)
Aims	Adventurous explorers, soldiers. In search of wealth (gold, pearls)	Adventurous explorers, soldiers. Wanted to bring Catholicism to Indians	Came with families to settle and build homes. Dreamed of a New and Better England
Views of the Indians	Lived closely, used their labor to develop the conquered land. Were brutal towards Indians	Lived closely, needed them to survive. Many Fr trappers married Indians. Did business with them	Did not want anything to do with them, very few married. Wished that Indians would leave the chosen areas
Government	RDFM, governors were responsible directly to their king, people in settlements never given chance to rule.	RDFM, governors were responsible directly to their king, people in settlements never given chance to rule.	Made many of their laws and rules. Most colonies had an assembly-like gathering of men
Tolerance	Did not want outsiders, only Spanish Catholics	Did not want outsiders, only French Catholics	In most room for everyone (some didn't welcome Jews, Quakers or Catholics)

3. From the English point of view, what was the purpose of establishing colonies?

- It was to gain international power in trades and overall power. Hoped to find gold and silver to finance the trade and colonies. Sources of raw materials, fruits, fur and other articles.

4. What was an indentured servant?

- An indentured servant was a servant who had served out their term of labor

5. Name the original 13 colonies.

- Virginia (VA), Massachusetts (MA), Maryland (MD), Rhode Island (RI), Connecticut (CT), New Hampshire (NH), North & South Carolina (NC, SC), New York (NY), New Jersey (NJ), Pennsylvania (PA), Delaware (DE), Georgia (GA)

6. Which groups of colonists came to the New World in search of religious freedom? How did their views differ?

- The Puritans (Pilgrims/Separatists), Quakers (+ Amish, Moravian, Mennonite)

- The Puritans did not welcome people from other religions, the Quakers believed that all men are created equal & should love one another & never fight, they believed in religious freedom.

7. What was the Mayflower Compact and why was it and important document?

- Signed in Nov, 1620 between the leaders of the Pilgrims. Two important principles: the people would vote about the government and laws; the people would accept whatever the majority chose. These principles are found in the US Constitution today.

8. What important principle regarding religion was established in Rhode Island and some of the other colonies?

- Complete separation of church and state

9. Name examples of democratic institutions in the colonies.

- Virginia House of Burgesses (1619)

10. What is representative democracy? Give an example

- Colonists elected representatives who met to make the laws for the colony

- Virginia House of Burgesses

11. What is direct democracy? Give an example.

- At town meetings, all the voters from the town met to vote on the laws on their town (only in a small area since they needed to meet frequently), at the meetings they also chose their representatives to the colonial assemblies.

12. Give examples of why democracy was not always complete in the colonies.

- Puritans: people could vote but only people of the Puritan Church

Bioloogia: Organismi areng

Apoptoos- kontrollitud rakusurm, vajalik arengu käigus erinevate struktuuride moodustumisel ja kahjustatud rakkude likvideerimisel. Täiskasvanul on 10^14 rakku, igas sekundis ~100 000 rakku juurde, sama palju sureb. Vähkkasvaja tekib, kui apoptoosiga on midagi lahti: kiirgusest v kemikaalidest kahjustatud rakud jäävad alles, rakutsükkel ei allu organismi kontrollile. Genoomi vahimees on valk p53, mida hakatakse tootma DNA kahjustumisel, kui võimalik, siis parandatakse, muidu rakutöö seiskub ja rakk sureb.
Sugurakkude areng
spermatogenees - seemnerakkude e spermatosoidide areng mehel, mood munandite väänilistes seemnetorukestes, spermatosoidide eellasrakkudes on spermatogeenid, need paljunevad kogu suguküpsuse perioodil (4-10^9 spermi iga kuu), igast spermatogeenist moodustub neli spermi, pidev protsess, kulgeb kehatemperatuurist madalamal temp, võib kulgeda kõrge vanuseni
ovogenees - munarakkude e ovotsüütide areng naisel, mood vaheldumisi kummaski munasarjas, munraku eellased on ovogoonid (400000- 200000 + 200000), ovogoonide paljunemine lõpeb looteeas, esimesel eluaasta lõpuks on rakud meioosi I jagun profaasis, meioos jätkub suguküpsuse saabudes, moodustub üks viljastumisvõimeline munarakk ja kolm väiksemat polotsüüte(hukkuvad), tsükililine küpsemine (21-28 päeva tagant), areng vanusest sõlutv 45-55 eluaastal saabub menopaus, ovulatsioon lakkab.

Viljastumine
Kestab 24 tundi, vanemate geenid aktiviseeruvad 1-2 päeva pärast, Loode (5 päeva pärast spermatosoidi ja munaraku ühinemist) (blastotsüst)-> Rakud spetsialiseeruvad kahte rühma -> ühest moodustuvad platsenta ja lootekest (7. päeval kinnitub emakaseinale), teisest areneb 14. päeval (loode)
Kunstlik viljastamine- munarakud võetakse välja, pannakse alusele, lisatakse spermatosoide. 15% ainult areneb looteks, 1/5 neist rasedustest katkevad
Ontogenees- organisimi arenemine viljastumisest surmani, 3 etappi: 1. viljastumine- munajuhas sugurakkude tuumade ühinemine, munarakk on viljastamisvõimeline, 24-36 tundi, spermid 48 tundi, 2. embrüogenees- loote areng, 3. postembrüogenees- lootejärgne areng; ovulatsioon- munaraku irdumine munasarja foliikulist munajuhasse (14.-16. päeval menstruatsioonitsükli algusest), kollakeha- areneb foliikulist, eritab munaraku küpsemist takistavaid hormoone-> östrogeen & progesteroon (soodustavad emaka limaskesta paksenemist)
Embrüonaalne areng- 1)sügoot e viljastatud munarakk lõigustub (mitoos!)-> 1) moorula (kobarloode)-> välimisest kihist trofoblast(toidab loodet, kinnitub emaka limaskestale) & 2) blastotsüst (põisloode) -> gastrula (harikloode) a) ekoderm e väliskiht, b) imtoderm e sisetuum, c) mesoderm- nende vahel. 2. a) amnion e vesikest, sees vedelik, kaitseb, b) allantois e kusekott, c) koorion e kõlakest + emakasein = platsenta(emakook) (3)-> seos lootega veresoonte kaudu, 4. Rakkude eristumine (diferentseerumine)-> histogenees (kudede teke)-> organogenees (organite teke)
Inimese arenemine - 1)viljastamine-rakukobar-idulane-loode-sünd, 2) rakukobara tekkimine- I jagunemine- vilj munarakk, 3) rakukobara tekkimine- viljastatud munarakk jaguneb- rakukobar jõuab emakasse- rakukobara sisse tekib õõs, 4) idulase teke ja areng- rakukobar pesastub emaka limaskestale- idulase rakud paigutuvad ümber- tekivad organite ja kehaosade alged- mood veega täidetud põis- I arengukuu lõpus 0,5- 1cm pikk, 5) kasvab-areneb kiiresti- kuj kehaosad ja toimivad organid- II arengukuu lõpus u 3 cm pikk-  sarnasus inimesega, 6) loote arenemine- 3. kuul toimub kiire organite areng- 4. kuul kujuneb luustik, saab määrata sugu- kasvavad juuksed, kulmud, küüned- kuuleb hääli, reageerib mürale- kõik elundkonnad arenevad kiiresti (6kuuselt sündides võib ellu jääda, 30 cm, 400-800gr), 7) 7kuu naha alla koguneb rasvkude, 8 kuu nahale tekib lootevõie, kujuneb peaseis, 9 kuu kiire kasv, organid valm. iseseisvaks eluks 8) sünd- loote areng kestab u 9 kuud- laps sünnib emakalihaste kokkutõmmete toimel(u 50 cm, 3-4kg)
Loomade areng otsene (linnud, imetajad, roomajad); moondega-> täismoondega - muna->vastne->nukk->valmik (liblikad, mardikad jne)
-> vaegmoondega- muna-> vastne-> valmik (tarakanid, lutikad, rohutirtsud)
Milline eelis täismoondega aregnul- ei toimu järglaste ja vanemate vahel todiu pärast võitlust
Lootejärgse arengu etapid
1) noorjärk e juveniilne - sünd, kasvamine, toitumisharjumuste omandamine, käimine/lendamine, kohanemine elukeskkonna ja erinevate situatsioonidega,tugi- & liik. elundkond tugevneb, areneb närvisüsteem, muutub sisenõreelundk töö, suguelundite väljaarenemine, sekund  sootunnused, algab ovogenees/spermatogenees
2) sigimisvõimeline järk- järglaste andmise periood, hukkumisprotsendi tõttu on paljudel selgrootutel ja osal selgroolistel palju järglasi
3)vananemine- üldine bioloogiline seaduspärasus, ei saa muuta- kehtib kõigil eluslooduse tasemetel tingitud pärilikkusest keskk. tingimused- SURM (agoonia, kliiniline surm 5 min, biloogiline surm)- elustamine! (tea ja oska)
vererakud- mehel vahetuvad 4 aasta järel, naisel 3 aasta järel

Ajalugu: Eesti Wabariigi kronoloogia - 1940

AASTA 1940

17.01.1940 - Jõgeval mõõdeti Eesti kõigi aegade madalaim õhutemperatuur: -43.5°C

01.02.1940 – K. Päts asutas 4. Diviisi

01.03.1940 – tegevust alustas Saksa Usaldusvalitsus; sureb A. H. Tammsaare

08.03.1940 – Maavolikogude valimised

(12.03.1940 – Soome ja NSVL vaheline Talvesõda lõpeb vaherahuga)

01.04.1940 – algas Kristjan Raua nimeline kunstiaasta

03.05.1940 – tapeti Muuga mõisasüdame omanik H. von Neff

06.05.1940 – K. Päts asutas Informatsiooni Keskuse

15.05.1940 – NSVL surub Eestile peale baaside maa-ala laiendamise kokkuleppe

18.05.1940 – Tallinnas lahkus viimane laev baltisaksa ümberasujatega

15.06.1940 – Nõukogude väed tulistavad alla reisilennuk Kaleva teel Tallinnast Helsingisse , hukkusid kõik üheksa pardalviibinut

16.06.1940 – NSV Liidu ultimaatum Eestile nõuab uue valitsuse moodustamist ja täiendavate Punaarmee üksuste riiki lubamist

17.06.1940 – Punaarmee okupeerib Eesti, 90 000 Punaarmeelast Eestisse, Narva diktaat

18.06.1940 - eraisikuil keelati relvade hoidmine ja kandmine, Kaitsejõudude ülemjuhataja J. Laidoner kuulutas välja komandanditunni ning keelustas rahvakogunemised ja kokkutulekud

19.06.1940 – A. Ždanovi visiit Tallinnasse

21.06.1940 – korraldati meeleavaldus, et näidata eestlaste „rõõmu“ (farss); sinilipp asendati punalipuga (polnud kommunistide plaan, vahetati tagasi), Patarei vanglast vabastati vange. Kommunistlik riigipööre, nn juunipööre, ametisse uus valitsus (peaminister J. Vares-Barbarus, asetäitja H. Kruus)

22.06.1940 – J. Laidoner vabastati ametist

27.06.1940 – keelustati Kaitseliit

05.07.1940 – Riigikogu saadeti laiali

14.-15.07.1940 – valimised Riigivolikokku, rahvuslike jõudude kandidaadid kõrvaldatakse valimistelt

18.07.1940 – J. Laidoner küüditati koos perega Nõukogude Liitu; Eesti-Läti jalgpalli maavõistlusele Kadrioru staadionil järgnes spontaanne isamaaline meeleavaldus, mille punaväelased laiali ajasid

20.07.1940 – presidendi dekreediga likvideeriti Eesti Teaduste Akadeemia, mis ei sobinud nõukogude teadusasutuste süsteemi

21.-23.07.1940 – punane Riigivolikogu vabastab ametist president K. Pätsi ja nimetab Eesti ümber Eesti Nõukogude Sotsialistlikuks Vabariigiks ja palub selle vastuvõtmist NSV Liitu

30.07.1940 – K. Päts küüditatakse koos perekonnaga Nõukogude Liitu

06.08.1940 – Eesti, Läti ja Leedu liidetakse NSV Liiduga, annekteerimine

14.08.1940 - Moskvas võeti vastu NLKP KK Poliitbüroo ja RSN otsus Balti riikide "riiklikust ja majanduslikust korraldusest", mille kohaselt Läti, Leedu ja Eesti armee lastakse laiali, kasutades nende juhtivkoosseisu Punaarmee ridades, Baltimaade kodanike kutsumine Punaarmeesse lükatakse edasi ühe aasta võrra, lubatakse formeerida üks diviis vabatahtlikuse alusel iga riigi kohta

25.08.1940 – Riigivolikogu võttis vastu NSVL konstitutsiooni

31.08.1940 – algab Eesti sõjaväe reorganiseerimine Punaarmee 22. laskurkorpuseks

24.09.1940 – A. Warma, H. Laretei ja A. Rei asutasid Stockholmis Eesti Vabariigi Välisdelegatsiooni.

25.11.1940 – paralleelselt kroonide-sentidega hakkavad Eestis kehtima rublad-kopikad

13.12.1940 – arreteeriti J. Tõnisson

Ajalugu: Eesti Wabariigi kronoloogia - 1938-1939

AASTA 1938

01.01.1938 – uus põhiseadus jõustub

03.01.1938 – Tartus valmis uus turuhoone

31.01.1938 - NLKP KK Poliitbüroo salajase otsusega kuulutati Nõukogude Liidu eestlased rahvavaenlasteks

jaanuar-veebruar 1938 – intsidentides Peipsi järvel hukkuvad kaks Nõukogude piirivalvurit

08.02.1938 – Peipsi järvel (NSV Liidus) tapetakse NSVL piirivalvurite poolt kaks Eesti piirivalvurit (A. Pungas ja V. Kaio)

13.02.1938 – majandusminister Karl Selter avab Tartu uue turuhoonee

15.02.1938 – kaks nõukogude ohvitseri põgenevad lennukiga Eestisse

24.-25.02.1938 – Riigivolikogu valimised- eriline valimisorgan Rahvarinne, mis seadis üles 80 valitsusmeelset kandidaati (1 igas valimisringkonnas), pääses ka 14 opositsioonilist saadikut (4 Tartust, kus opositsioon sai absoluutse võidu), valitsusmeelsed võidavad valimised

01.04.1938 – tegevust alustav Loodushoiu ja Turismi Instituut (P. Päts)

07.04.1938 – algavad Riigivolikogu ja Riiginõukogu I koosseisu volitused

21.04.1938 – Eesti presidendi ülesandeid hakkab täitma riigihoidja K. Päts

24.04.1938 – K. Päts valiti presidendiks, astus ametisse. Presidendi otsevalimistest loobuti, Riigikogu mõlema koja liikmetest ja omavalitsuste esindajatest luuakse valimiskogu. Endiselt püsis kaitseseisukord, tsentralisatsioon süvenes, valitsuse kontroll elualade üle samuti. Riigikogule usaldatakse vaid kolmandajärgulised seadused.

29.04.1938 – Eesti Lambakasvatajate Selts nimetab Eesti õuekoeratõu Muriks ning karjakoeratõu Krantsiks

01.05.1938 – 14 senist alevit saavad linnaõigused (Antsla, Elva, Jõgeva, Jõhvi, Kallaste, Keila, Kilingi-Nõmme, Kunda, Kärdla, Mustla, Mustvee, Mõisaküla, Sindi ja Suure-Jaani)

06.05.1938 – K. Päts kuulutab välja amnestiaseaduse

07.05.1938 – amnestiaseaduse alusel vabanevad kõik poliitvangid

25.05.1938 – sisekaitseülemaks sai siseminister Richard Veermaa

02.06.1938 – Kose-Lükatil avati K. Pätsi nimeline Eesti Punase Risti vabaõhukool

12.06.1938 – Paju lahingu mälestussamba ehituse algus

23.-25.06.1938 – XI üldlaulupidu

01.08.1938 – avati Harku Tööpõlgurite Töölaager (kinnipidamisasutus sunduslikult tööle õpetamiseks, harjutamiseks ja rakendamiseks)

19.09.1938 – NSVL süüdistab Eesti Vabariiki vaenulike allveelaevad abistamises (Orzeli juhtum)

26.09.1938 – Vabariigi Valitsuse juurde luuakse presidendi käskkirjaga nõuniku ametikoht (eelnõukavad)

08.10.1938 – K. Päts allkirjastab valdade reformi otsuse (vt 01.04.1939)

12.10.1938 – esimene õppelennuk PTO-4 võeti õhukaitse teenistusse

22.10.1938 – Tartus avati Eesti Teaduste Akadeemia

1938. a – algab Anto Valteri ümbermaailmareis purjepaadiga (Eesti lipp I korda ümber maailma; -1940); autoritaarne režiim Eestis oli nõrgem kui mujal, peamine pane oli rahva ja valitsuse kaugenemine, majanduselu edenes jõudsalt (majandusrahvuslus- riigi jõuline sekkumine majandusellu), plaanimajandusele iseloomulikud elemendid (nõukogud, komiteed, instituudid majandusressursside arvelevõtmiseks ja jaotamiseks, perspektiivplaanid), erakordselt suur tähelepanu tööstusele, põllumajanduses haritava põllupinna, kariloomade arvu suurenemine, maa- ja tõuparanduse ja sordiaretuse laialdane rakendamine. Kasvas eksport ja väliskaubanduse bilanss oli positiivne (peamised partnerid olid Saksamaa ja Suurbritannia ning lähisnaabrid). Eksporditi võid, peekonit ja mune, imporditi raud, kivisütt ja naftat. Rahva heaolu paranes, sissetulek kasvas, elukallidus langes, kadus tööpuudus. Eesti, Läti ja Leedu deklareerisid end neutraalseteks (kahjuks ei saanud ükski välisriik nende puutumatus garanteerida)

AASTA 1939

01.04.1939 – jõustub valdade reformi otsus, kaotati kõik olemasolevad vallad ning moodustati 248 uut valda

07.06.1939 – Eesti ja Läti välisministrid allkirjastasid Berliinis Saksamaaga mittekallaletungilepingu

23.08.1939 – MRP sõlmimine, salaprotokollidega läheb NSVL mõjusfääri Ida-Poola, Soome, Eesti, Läti, Bessaraabia ja Saksamaa mõjusfääri Poola ja Leedu (hiljem Leedu NSVL'le)

25.08.1939 – avatakse Tallinna Loomaaed

september 1939 – Eesti säilitab range neutraliteedi, vältis isegi mobilisatsiooni

01.09.1939 – Saksa väed tungivad Poolasse, algab II MS

03.09.1939 – Suurbritannia ja Prantsusmaa kuulutavad Saksamaale sõja, kuid NSV Liidule mitte; K. Päts avab Vanemuise uue teatrisaali Tartu põllumajandus- ja tööstusnäituse raames

08.09.1939 – kaitseseisukorda pikendatakse ühe aasta võrra

17.09.1939 – Punaarmee ründab Poolat, Wehrmachti & Punaarmee ühine paraad, Poola jagamine

24.09.1939 – välisminister Karl Selterilt nõutakse vastastikuse abistamise pakti allkirjastamist Moskvas

25.09.1939 – NSVL alustab luurelende Eesti kohal, et aerofotode ja vaatluse abil kindlaks teha, kas toimub mobilisatsioon

28.09.1939 – sõlmitakse Baaside leping Eesti ja NSVL vahel (vastastikuse abistamise pakt)

oktoobri algus 1939 – sõjaväelaste läbirääkimised

04.10.1939 – peaminister Kaarel Einpalu asutub tagasi

06.10.1939 – Hitleri kõnes kutsutakse (balti)sakslasi päris kodumaale tagasi

12.10.1939 – Kolm vene miinilaevad ja Balti sõjalaevastiku põhijõud; uueks peaministriks saab Jüri Uluots

18.10.1939 – Punaarmee maavägede sissemarss Eestisse (25 000+); lahkuvad esimesed baltisakslased

30.11.1939 – Soome ja NSV Liidu vahel algab Talvesõda. Soome linnu pommitavad ka Eesti pinnalt startinud lennukid

5.12.1939 – J. Laidoneri ametlikul visiidil Moskvasse rõhutatakse, et NSVL ei sekku Eesti siseasjadesse

1939. a – Eesti meeskond osaleb Luzernis laskespordi MM'l ja võidab uuesti Argentiina karika uue maailmarekordiga; raadiovastuvõtjaid on ~10 000 (s.o 1 iga 10 inimese kohta)

Ajalugu: Eesti Wabariigi kronoloogia - 1935-1937

AASTA 1935

17.01.1935 - Riigivanem K. Päts teatas kavatsusest kutsuda põhiseaduse muutmiseks kokku uus Asutav Kogu

23.02.1935 – Tallinnas avati Meremuuseum

05.03.1935 – keelustati kõikide erakondade tegevus – nende asemel valitsuse toetajaskonda koondavad uuetüübilised ühingud – Isamaaliit ja kutsekojad (pidid olema üldkultuurilised ja apoliitilised, tegelikkuses tsentraliseeritud ainupartei); jõulised sammud opositsoiooni lämmatamiseks, siseminister sai õiguse saata poliitvastased sundpagendusse

07.03.1935 – Tuuakse ellu Isamaaliit, mis on autoritaarset režiimi toetav organisatsioon

22.05.1935 – siseminister Karl Einbund eestistas oma nime Kaarel Eenpaluks

02.07.1935 – Eestisse saabusid külaskäigule Soome kindral Hameli ja 50 Soome ohvitseri

14.-15.07.1935 – toimusid Majaomanikkude Koja valimised

26.07.1935 - J. Tõnissoni opositsoonilisele tegevuse tõttu võttis valitsus Postimehe sekvesteri alla ja tõrjus J. Tõnissoni toimetuse tööst eemale

11.09.1935 - riigivanema otsusega pikendati kaitseseisukorda ühe aasta võrra

27.09.1935 - Eesti laskurid võitsid Roomas mitu maailmameistritiitlit ning püstitasid mitu maailmarekordit

7.12.1935 – vapsid valmistasid ette relvastatud riigipööret, kuid vahetult enne seda arreteeriti osalised, ka vabadussõjalaste juhid.133 vapsi said kokku 1163 aastat vangistust ning kaotasid populaarsuse

23.12.1935 – toimus Looduskaitse Nõukogu esimene koosolek

31.12.1935 - aastavahetuse kõnes tegi Riigivanem K. Päts teatavaks kavatsuse korraldada põhiseaduse muutmise küsimuses rahvahääletus

1935 . a – opositsiooni peamiseks keskuseks kujuneb Tartu (libeeraalne intelligents) – nn Tartu vaim; Inglise-Saksa mereväeleping – UK on valmis andma Balti piirkonna Hitler ja Stalini hammaste vahele; Venemaa aktiviseerub; majandusnõukogude reorganiseerumine

AASTA 1936

08.01.1936 – K. Päts allkirjastab rahvahääletuse korraldamise otsuse

16.02.1936 – Rotterdamis arreteeritakse A. Sirk

23.-25.02.1936 – rahvahääletus, milles enamik kiitis heaks Pätsi ettepaneku moodustada Rahvuskogu, mille eesmärk on parandada kehtivat põhiseadust

20.03.1936 – lasti käibele K. Pätsi näopildiga postmargid

01.04.1936 – Otepää alev saab linnaks

20.04.1936 - algasid Meierite Koja nõukogu valimised

15.06.1936 - plahvatus Männiku laskemoona ladudes

07.07.1936 – Suurbritannias lasti vette Eesti allveelaevad Kalev ja Lembit

1.-16.08.1936 – toimuvad XI olümpiamängud Berliinis, Kristjan Palusalu saab kulla kreeka-rooma maadluses ning vabamaadluses (raskekaal)

09.09.1936 - riigivanema otsusega pikendatati kaitseseisukorda ühe aasta võrra

15.09.1936 - avati Tallinna Tehnikainstituut (rektoriks professor P. Kogerman)

20.09.1936 – avatakse ametlikult Tallinna lennujaam

07.10.1936 – Riigivanem asutab Riigivapi ja Valgetähe teenetemärgi

08.10.1936 – Avati Õpetajate Koda

30.10.1936 – Endiste riigivanemate (J. Tõnisson, A. Piip, J. Teemant, J. Kukk) märgukiri K. Pätsile, nõutakse tagasipöördumist demokraatia juurde ja Rahvuskogu valimiste ärajätmist

12.-14.12.1936 – Valimised Rahvuskogu esimesse kotta; opositsioon boikoteerib valimisi

29.12.1936 – Pannakse alus filmi- ja fotoarhiivile

1936. a – kodukaunistamise üritus

AASTA 1937

02.02.1937 – Tallinnas avatakse kohvik „Kultas“

03.02.1937 - põletati Caritase 1936. aasta väljaande postmarkide ülejääk (209 999 tk)

16.02.1937 - avati Eraettevõtete Ametnikkude Koda

18.02.1937 – Rahvuskogu kokkukutsumine (ebademokraatlikult moodustatud, et legaliseerida ebaseaduslikult haaratud võim)

23.02.1937 - Riigivanem K. Päts esitas Rahvuskogule Eesti Vabariigi Põhiseaduse eelnõu

01.04.1937 - kaitsevägi nimetati ümber sõjaväeks ja Kaitseministeerium Sõjaministeeriumiks; hakkas kehtima Steriliseerimise seadus

16.04.1937 – ilmusid müügile I ETK vabrikutes valmistatud jalgrattad

20.04.1937 – Kilingi-Nõmme algkoolis hukkus kinoseansil põlema läinud filmilindi pärast 17 kooliõpilast, vigastada sai 50 (Eesti seniajani suurima vigastatud ja hukkund laste arvuga õnnetus)

30.04.1937 – lõpeb Eesti Entsüklopeedia trükkimine

09.07.1937 – allveelaev Lembit jõuab Eestisse

17.07.1937 – valmis 197-meetrine Türi raadiosaatejaama mast-antenn, mis tagas riigi Ringhäälingu kuuldavuse kogu Eestis.

28.07.1937 – K. Pätsi isiklike suunitluste aluses võetakse vastu uus põhiseadus – autoritaarne valitsemisviis; riigipeaks saab president (laialdaste õigustega, võis anda dekreetidega seadusi, panna parlamendi seadustele veto, saata nad laiali, kinnitada ametisse valitsuse); valimisõiguslikud on alates 22. aastased; Riigikogu on kahekojaline- Riigivolikogu (80 rahva valitud liiget, alamkoda) ja Riiginõukogu (40 liiget, kes määrati ja osaliselt valiti, ülemkoda), õigused on tugevalt piiratud; Vabariigi Valitsus kujunes presidendi tahte ja otsuste täideviijaks (eesotsas peaminister), määrava tähtsusega on presidendi usaldus valitsuse ees; uus põhiseadus kärpis ka rahva õigusi (võeti rahvaalgatuse ja streigiõigus, piirati rahvushääletusi ja valimisi) (vt 03.09.1937)

14.08.1937 - Riigivanem K. Päts asutas Eesti Vabariigi Põhiseaduse mälestusmärgi

17.08.1937 - Riigivanem K. Päts kuulutas välja uue Eesti Vabariigi Põhiseaduse; jagati välja 149 EV Põhiseaduse mälestusmärki, neist 32 I klassi mälestusmärgid

29.08.1937 – Iru linnusesse paigutati sümboolne garnison

30.08-02.09.1937 – Riigivanem K. Pätsi visiit Soome

3.09.1937 – uus põhiseadus avaldatakse Riigiteatajas, algab 120-päevane üleminekuaeg (vt 01.01.1938)

11.09.1937 – A. Tupits määratakse põllutööministriks, astub ametisse

12.09.1937 – kaitseseisukorda pikendati aasta võrra

01.10.1937 - algas Allveelaevastiku Sihtkapitali vanametallide kogumise võistluskorjandus allveelaevade hävitajate soetamiseks

09.10.1937 – avati Tartu Kutseesinduste Kodu

10.10.1937 – avati Tõravere raudbetoonsild Elva jõel

22.10.1937 – asutati Vabatahtliku Kodanliku Õhukaitse Liit.

23.10.1937 – asetati nurgakivi Kodumajanduse Instituudile; Jõhvi lähedal jõuti puurimistel rauamaagi lademeteni

31.10.1937 – pandi nurgakivi uuele Vanemuise hoonele

29.12.1937 – Riigihoidja dekreet lõpetas Riigikogu volitused – asjaajamine, varad ja kohustused lähevad üle Riigikantseleile

1937. a – vähendati gümnaasiumite, suurendati kutsekoolide arvu, lisati soodustused, kutsehariduse populariseerimine; Eesti meeskond osaleb Helsingis laskespordi MM'l ja võidab Argentiina karika uue maailmarekordiga